Note: The full report is available in PDF, which many find useful when printing.
The problems affecting children in the nation's capital are well known. Year after year, the KIDS COUNT Data Book documents the severity of problems facing children and youth in the District of Columbia. Poverty runs high. The majority of school children score below basic reading levels. Birth rates to teenagers and juvenile violent crime arrest rates far exceed the national average. Such data raise serious concerns about the quality of life and opportunities for children in the District, particularly for those living in the poorest, inner-city neighborhoods.
Purpose and Objectives
Because research shows that neighborhood characteristics and local institutions affect the overall well-being of children and youth, the Center on Nonprofits and Philanthropy at the Urban Institute undertook a study of the institutional factors that make a positive difference in the lives of children and families in local communities. More specifically, the purpose of the study was to construct a methodology to identify and describe community organizations and networks that strengthen families and children in three low-income neighborhoods in Washington, D.C. It included the following tasks:
- Develop tools to analyze the size, scope, and structure of community organizations that foster local leadership and leverage resources on behalf of families and children;
- Conduct a spatial analysis to understand the relationship between the nonprofit infrastructure and socioeconomic characteristics of three low-income neighborhoods in the District of Columbia; and
- Describe the community-based groups and networks that enhance the well-being of families and children.
Selection of Neighborhoods
The selection of neighborhoods began with three criteria that affect community infrastructures at the local level. The communities had to be: 1) similar in population size; 2) dispersed geographically throughout the city; and 3) similar in income levels, as measured by percentage of households in poverty. After identifying several neighborhoods that fit the three selection criteria and consulting with Annie E. Casey Foundation staff, the final selection of sites also captured several differences among the communities. The three sites selected for study were:
- Columbia Heights, a racially/ethnically diverse neighborhood in Northwest D.C.;
- Marshall Heights, a predominantly African-American community in Northeast D.C. that has relatively high homeownership rates; and
- Washington Highlands, a troubled and neglected African-American neighborhood in Southeast D.C. that is in the midst of new housing construction.
Research Methods
A three-step strategy, using both quantitative and qualitative methods, was used to measure and understand the dynamics of the study neighborhoods. First, data were obtained from the U.S. Bureau of the Census, National Neighborhood Indicators Project, D.C. Office of Planning and Evaluation, D.C. Department of Children and Family Services, and other governmental agencies to construct a socioeconomic and demographic profile of each community. These data provided measures of the number of children in each neighborhood, school performance, crime rates, and a host of other community indicators.
Second, an electronic database was created using data from the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) on nonprofit organizations that have filed for tax-exempt, 501(c)(3) status. These data were supplemented with information from local directories and key informants who identified small neighborhood groups not required by the IRS to seek tax-exempt status. The database was further expanded to include religious congregations located in the city. The database provides a comprehensive list of the local organizational infrastructure that is addressing the needs of children and families in the study sites. These data were geographically mapped to assess their spatial distribution in relation to local socioeconomic needs.
The final step was to conduct ethnographic field work in the neighborhoods. A series of activities was undertaken to gather both qualitative and quantitative data about the neighborhoods and local efforts to help children and families. First, interviews were conducted with 62 individuals (key informants) to learn about the strengths of each community, local needs, local organizations, and community networks focused on helping children and families. Key informants included leaders of nonprofit organizations, religious clergy, school principals, police officers, and local political leaders. Later, a survey of 51 nonprofit organizations that work with children and families was conducted to measure the size, scope, capacity, funding sources, and residents' participation in these organizations. Finally, field staff provided ethnographic observations about the neighborhoods, community groups, and local networks that are actively addressing the needs of children and families in the study sites.
Key Findings
Our research revealed a unique story in each neighborhood, and details of these analyses are provided in the full report. Seven key findings, however, provide a general summary of the common themes and comparative differences that emerged from the research. The findings are viewed as essential elements in developing strategies to address the needs of children and families in local neighborhoods.
1. Local, neighborhood conditions matter. Although the three study sites were selected because of similarities along a number of socioeconomic dimensions, it soon became apparent that each neighborhood had its own unique organizational and environmental context. These conditions were instrumental in shaping local institutions and their linkages to broader community-based and citywide networks.
—Columbia Heights, for example, with its ethnic diversity has seven times more nonprofit organizations and a more complex web of networks than either Marshall Heights or Washington Highlands. Communication across ethnic groups is not well developed, however.
—In Marshall Heights, the Marshall Heights Community Development Organization anchors and dominates the civic infrastructure. It is regarded by our key informants as "the place to go" if you have a problem. A handful of smaller groups also offer programs for children and families, but the out-migration of residents from Marshall Heights, in part, undercuts the development of local leadership as families move out of the area in search of better opportunities.
—Washington Highlands is undergoing dramatic environmental change. Public housing is being torn down and replaced by mixed income housing. Crime is regarded as the number one problem in this community. A civic infrastructure is beginning to appear as community groups and local churches work together to create programs that address the needs of children and families in the area.
2. Civic infrastructure in poor neighborhoods tends to be fragile and transient. Our field work revealed considerable turnover in the number of community-based groups working in the three study sites with some groups moving in or out of the neighborhood and others being newly formed or recently disband. About half of the groups identified through IRS data were confirmed by our field work to be in the area; another one-quarter were no longer in the study sites. This finding suggests the need for local-level field work to develop a current and complete picture of the civic infrastructure in a specific neighborhood, and the need for periodic monitoring to keep on top of changes. It also suggests the need for intervention strategies that will invest in capacity building for these community-based organizations.
3. Nonprofit organizations matter. Over 80 percent of respondents cited the work of nonprofits as making a difference in promoting the well-being of children and families in local neighborhoods. This response was consistent across study sites and regardless of the respondent's affiliation. Yet there are relatively few services for kids. On average, there is one nonprofit for every 46 children in Columbia Heights; one for every 490 children in Marshall Heights; and one for every 703 children in Washington Highlands.
4. Money matters. Our survey data show that many of the neighborhood groups in the three study sites are tackling important community issues with very limited resources. The average budget ranges from $674,000 in Columbia Heights to $275,000 in Washington Highlands. But dollars, alone, do not tell the whole story. In Columbia Heights, nonprofit groups have a broad funding base, drawing on more than five different funding sources to support their activities, whereas in Marshall Heights and Washington Highlands, the base of financial support is much more limited. Two-thirds of the groups in Washington Highlands reported that more than 80 percent of their funds came from a single source. Resource dependence can be an indirect measure of organizational strength and capacity, and our data show that nonprofit organizations in these low-income areas, and especially those in Washington Highlands, will need a larger and more diverse financial base to build their organizational capacity to make change possible.
5. Leadership matters. Strong leaders make things happen, and the three study sites all have strong leaders who are working hard to improve the lives of children and families in their neighborhoods. In Columbia Heights, heads of community organizations were seen as the principal leaders of the neighborhood, along with the local community development corporation. In Marshall Heights, respondents noted two primary sources of leadership: the Marshall Heights Community Development Organization, and the Advisory Neighborhood Commission. In Washington Highlands, the resident councils were cited more than any other group as providing effective leadership. The local City Council member also received high marks, although government, itself, was not generally regarded as an effective force in the community.
6. Religious congregations could be potential resources. Perhaps one of the untapped resources of these communities is religious congregations. In Columbia Heights and Washington Highlands, for example, several congregations provide physical space and volunteers for nonprofit organizations to run their programs. This type of arrangement was much less evident in Marshall Heights, although houses of worship outnumber nonprofit groups by a factor of more than three to one in Marshall Heights. The majority of our key informants in Marshall Heights identified churches as important influences in the community, but gave mixed reviews on their effectiveness in addressing local needs. Part of this reluctance was based on the perception that local congregations provide services only to their members and that most of the members no longer live in the neighborhood, but have moved to Maryland or other parts of the District. Because the neighborhood environment can serve as an incubator for local leadership, it is important to explore the many avenues that can nurture local leaders.
7. Programs should be "family focused." There was a strong consensus across all three communities that programs should be holistic in their approach to problem solving or service delivery. This approach was generally characterized as "family focused" as opposed to "individually focused," and implied that a constellation of family needs and characteristics must be addressed to make change possible. Many of the respondents believed that programs should focus on the needs of the children, particularly on improving the local schools and supporting school-based programs for older youth.
Conclusion
The methodology developed and tested in this study provides an important framework for understanding the needs and institutional infrastructures of local neighborhoods. It provides a set of both quantitative and qualitative research tools that can be used to investigate factors affecting community life and the well-being of children and families in other D.C. neighborhoods, as well as in other communities across the country.
The study's findings emphasize the importance of looking carefully at the strengths and assets of local neighborhoods before developing initiatives to address local needs. Both organizational and environmental factors can vary widely from place to place and must to be taken into account when designing initiatives to produce positive change for children and families. Based on our research findings, CNP offers four recommendations for investing in low-income communities.
1. An initial step in designing programs for low-income communities must begin with a careful assessment of the neighborhood's organizational and environmental context. Although the three D.C. study sites were selected because they shared several common features, the research found substantial differences in the resources and networks of the three communities. Intervention strategies will need to take account of these community conditions to be effective.
2. Programmatic interventions must be tailored to fit local conditions. While a specific strategy may be effective in one neighborhood, it may fail to produce the desired results in another community because organizational and environmental factors vary greatly from place to place. Indeed, the efficacy of strategies are constrained by organizational and sociopolitical environments, which provide their own challenges. Instead, programmatic approaches should be tailored to support and strengthen existing organizational assets and community resources or to fill gaps in the local infrastructure.
3. For an initiative to succeed in low-income areas, it must be long-term and flexible. The problems facing many low-income neighborhoods are likely to be deeply rooted and difficult to change in a short funding cycle. A long-term commitment is required to effect real change. But environments and needs also change over time, and effective place-based strategies must be flexible to respond to change. The implementation of long-term and flexible programs has a two-fold advantage. First, it will help meet existing needs, while also contributing to the future viability of the community. Second, the demonstration of a foundation's continued commitment to a low-income neighborhood may encourage additional public and private investment to the area.
4. Making a difference in the lives of children and families in poor neighborhoods requires periodic monitoring of organizational and environmental conditions. While effective place-based strategies must begin with a solid understanding of the organizational and environmental characteristics of the neighborhood, they also require on-going monitoring of organizational and environmental change. This process provides an invaluable and essential feedback loop to make programmatic adjustments that fit current needs and conditions.
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